August 23, 1939- The Non-Aggression Pact

Joseph Stalin. 1943. US Signal Corps. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Stalin_%28colorized%29.jpg

Adolf Hitler. 1938. German Federal Archive. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H1216-0500-002,_Adolf_Hitler.jpg

At the end of World War 1 Germany was defeated and subjected to numerous restrictions on its military as well as war reparations to the Allies that devastated its economy. This state of affairs contributed to the rise of the Nazi Party and a German foreign policy aimed at regaining lost territory and greater expansion.

The war also ended with the collapse of the Tsarist regime in Russia. Out of the various factions that created a provisional government, the Bolshevic communists emerged victorious and founded the Soviet Union. The capitalist states of Western Europe and the U.S saw the communist regime as a direct threat to their global power and worked to isolate them internationally.

When Hitler took power in Germany he immediately began building up the military and annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia. France and Britain attempted several diplomatic efforts to prevent another European war. They also signed a treaty with Poland vowing to come to its aid if it was invaded by a foreign power.

The Nazis were even more hostile to the Soviet Union than other Western states due to their ideological rejection of communism and their racist convictions that saw many Eastern Europeans, particularly Slavic peoples, as genetically inferior.

So it was a shock to the Allies when Germany and Russia signed a non-aggression pact, formally agreeing not to attack each other for 10 years, and not to aid any third power that may attack the other. One of the main reasons many argue that Germany lost the first World War was that it was fighting states on either side of it. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact seemed to ensure that would not happen again, making war with Western Europe more likely. Soon after the pact was signed Germany invaded Poland, beginning the second World War. 2 weeks later Russia invaded Poland from the east. 

At the end of the war it was revealed that there was a secret protocol included in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact that specified how Germany and Russia would carve up Eastern Europe into separate spheres of influence, including the division of Poland between them.

The pact was dissolved in 1941 when the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union in a surprise attack known as “Operation Barbarossa.” Most historians argue that despite Hitler and the Nazis’ deep hostility to communism and racist stance towards Slavic peoples, Stalin and the leadership of the Soviet Union were genuinely caught off guard by the invasion. Initial gains by Germany were soon bogged down in arguably the most vicious fighting of the war. Many battle sites on the eastern front, such as Stalingrad, still bear devastation directly related to the constant bombardment. 27 million Russians died in World War 2- approximately 19 million civilians and 9 million military personnel. 

Sources:

Molotov-Ribbentrop: The Pact That Changed Europe's Borders- 

Radio Free Europe

German-Soviet Pact- The Holocaust Encyclopedia

The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact – Archive- The Guardian

Colonizing Hawai'i/Part 7- From Republic to Annexation

Members of the Constitutional Convention, Republic of Hawaii, 1894. Unknown author.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Members_of_the_Constitutional_Convention,_Republic_of_Hawaii_(PP-28-7-023)_(cropped).jpg

Temporarily thwarted in their bid for US annexation, the Provisional Government called a constitutional convention in June of 1894. 19 of its 37 delegates were selected by Sanford B. Dole, and the remaining 18 were elected. The constitution that was enacted, written primarily by Dole and Lorrin Thurston, established a president as the head of government, and converted the house of Nobles to a Hawaiian Senate, to more closely resemble the US government.

Voting rights were limited to male citizens of the Republic. Citizens naturalized before 1893 were excluded unless they were “a native of a country having, or have had, treaty relations with Hawaii.” This was designed specifically to exclude Chinese and Japanese citizens. Certain non-citizens could vote, if they received “certificates of service” or “letters of denization” from the Hawaiian government, provided they took an oath to support the constitution and republic, and to not aid any attempts to restore the monarchy. The vast majority of Native Hawaiians refused to take such an oath, leaving them ineligible to participate in elections or the government of their homeland.’

Following the forced adoption of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887, Native Hawaiian leaders formed the Hui Kālai ‘āina, roughly translated as “Hawaiian Political Association.” This group worked to organize petition drives to demand a new constitution. They remained active after the coup in petitioning the US to restore Queen Lili’uokalani. Another organization was formed after the overthrow by former Native Hawaiian legislators called the Hui Aloha ‘Āina, roughly translated to the “Patriotic league.” There were initially separate organizations for men and women. These groups were able to deliver petitions arguing against annexation and restoration of the monarchy with signatures of nearly all the 40,000 Native Hawaiians in the Republic. 

Queen Lili’uokalani traveled to Washington DC 1897 to petition the Congress against annexation and to restore her monarchy. During this time she wrote “Hawai’i’s story by Hawai’i’s Queen.” Agents of the Republic were also in the capital lobbying William McKinley’s administration for annexation. As in 1894, both parties were unsuccessful in their efforts, and so the Republic endured. However events in 1898 would tip the scales in the annexationists’ favor.

President William McKinley and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt, circa 1900. Library of Congress

Spain had colonized islands in the Caribbean and Pacific for centuries. The country was wracked by internal and colonial revolutions throughout the 19th century. In Cuba, one in a long line of revolts had reached a critical mass in the 1890s. Subduing it required an economically suffering Spain to send more troops it could ill afford and use more brutal tactics than in the past. Notoriously, it sought to separate the general population of Cubans from the insurgents by removing them from their villages to several concentration camps. 

These tactics were seized on by Americans eager to keep expanding US territory throughout the Western Hemisphere. Pro-war newspapers waged a boisterous campaign depicting Spain as an imperialist tyrant and demanding military intervention. The prospect was not popular with the general public or enough mainstream politicians to affect any official actions. William McKinley’s administration sought to secure Spanish withdrawal through diplomatic measures. On February 15th, 1898 a major explosion occurred on the USS Maine, a warship that had been sent to Havana Harbor in preparation to protect any American property should it be endangered during the fighting between the Cubans and Spanish. The ship sank soon after, killing over 250 crewmen. Multiple investigations followed from both Spanish and American governments. Most found that the explosion was the result of an accident in the coal bunker or magazines for its cannon, but some American investigators claimed it was caused by a Spanish torpedo or mine. The verdicts remain a matter of debate to this day. 

The pro-war press and politicians used the incident to renew their cause, coining the rallying cry, “Remember the Maine! To Hell with Spain!” The incident did not immediately move the administration to declare war, but it provided enough pressure to sway public opinion and persuade a sufficient number of politicians. On April 20, McKinely signed a joint resolution drafted by Congress supporting Cuban independence and authorizing a naval blockade of Cuba. Spain responded by declaring war on the US. The US war effort included sending naval forces to all of Spain’s colonies, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The Republic of Hawaii officially adopted a neutral stance in the conflict, but in reality made its harbors available for crucial feuling and resupply of the navy. Pro-annexationists in Hawai’i and the US used this to argue for the strategic necessity of US control of the islands. Spanish resistance was minimal and US casualties low, stoking the war fever throughout the country. 

In July the Newlands Resolution accomplished the annexation of Hawai’i and the end of the war saw the US gain possession of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and Guantanamo Bay on the edge of Cuba. By 1900 Congress had passed the Organic Act, making Hawai’i an official US territory. 

Sources:

Queen Lili’uokalani- National Parks Service

Spanish American War in Hawai’i- Aloha Authentic

Joint Resolution to Provide for Annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States (1898)- National Archives 

25% of Hawaii's Land (Crown Lands) Taken Illegally (Who Benefited?) with Donovan Preza M.A.- Hawaiian Kingdom Academia

March 29, 1973- Last US Combat Troops Leave Vietnam

Hõ Chí Minh, President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Public Domain.

The Vietnam War was one of the most unpredictable events in American history. No one believed that communist guerrillas could defend their country against the US military and no one predicted the explosion of the anti-war movement within the US. It is still hotly debated why the war was lost. Some point to specific aspects of the Cold War, of anti-war activism, and the politics within Vietnam. Others point to larger trends that had less to do with the conflict, such as electronic media and the decline of colonial projects throughout the world.

The US began bombing targets in Vietnam in 1964 after US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin were attacked. US troops began being deployed in 1965.

However, US involvement began long before this and included supporting the French colonial project there, as well as many missions by US special forces against communist guerrillas.

The first Americans were drafted for the conflict near the end of 1969.

On March 29th, 1973, the last US combat troops left Vietnam.

North Vietnam captured the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, in April of 1975, ending the civil war and establishing the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

The video below is a short interview with James Arnold, a historian who wrote a book called The First Domino, about the actions taken by US officials in the decades before the 1960s that contributed to the conflicts in Vietnam.

Sources:

History of American Involvement in Vietnam- C-Span interview with James Arnold, Historian

February 2, 1848- The Mexican/American War ends (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo)

Mexico’s road to independence was a long and tortured one. As a colonial possession of Spain, untold wealth was extracted from it, and shameful violence, pestilence, and famine were meted out to its indigenous inhabitants and most of the Spanish and mixed-race people born on its soil following the conquest.

A coalition of dissident factions eventually managed to throw off Spanish rule in 1821. However, the revolutionaries did not share a vision for independence for most of Mexico’s citizens, who were by and large uneducated, and/or of mixed heritage. Without a popular movement supporting their initiatives, the intellectual and military leaders of the new republic frequently fell out and fought against each other. Several of the first Mexican presidents were executed for treason by political rivals not long after leaving office. General Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as the most dominant political leader of this period. He held the office of president several times, but even outside of it, was never far from the center of power. 

As conservative Centralists gained power in the country, the first constitution was overhauled and the government took on a more authoritarian structure, leading to more strident resistance in many parts of the country. Beyond Ciudad Mexico (Mexico City) in all directions were large rural territories that had traditionally been ruled by heavy handed elites, often using forced labor, relocation, and cultural repression. As economic insecurity plagued the new government, multiple popular uprisings emerged, sapping the military’s resources. 

One of Mexico’s largest territories was the province of Coahuila and Texas. Before independence, the Spanish Empire had struggled to populate this region. In order to solve this inherited problem, the Mexican government encouraged immigrants from the United States to settle in the area, providing cheaper land and temporary exemption from Mexican taxes. The policy stipulated that these immigrants must be Roman Catholics, but this was not something that could be enforced in reality. This created an unstable situation among many of the American immigrant communities and their Mexican and mixed-race Tejano neighbors. The government kept the immigrant Texans in check politically by keeping Coahuila, where Mexicans still had greater numbers, and Texas in one province. But American immigrants still dominated Texas demographically and economically. In order to preserve Mexican control of the area, the government abolished chattel slavery in 1829, (Texas being the only Mexican territory where it was still widely practiced, due to immigrants from the American South). This was meant to discourage immigration from the United States, which a year later was banned outright.

Eventually, calls for Texas secession from the Mexican Republic reached a critical mass, resulting in the establishment of the Lone Star Republic in 1836. General Santa Anna’s hardline tactics against the rebels only steeled their resolve and bolstered support from factions within the United States who supported the revolt with money and volunteers. Texan forces eventually captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign an agreement recognizing Texan independence and vow to cease hostilities. The general returned to Mexico to an irate government that refused to recognize the agreements. 

While many Americans cheered the Texas revolution and urged their government to absorb the new republic into the United States, just as many saw it as a dangerous powderkeg that had resulted from reckless adventurism. The question was debated for years and argued against on the grounds that annexation of Texas would start a war with Mexico and introduce an unwelcome cultural element (Mexicans) into the United States. By the mid 1840s, Democrats gained more traction for expansionist policies. James K. Polk won the presidency in 1844 on a platform including annexation of Texas. Before he was even inaugurated, a bill was introduced to Congress and the state of Texas was created by 1845.

Map of Mexico in 1824 after the creation of the Federal District. Hpav7. Wikimedia Commons. 2009. Public Domain.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mapa_de_Mexico_1824_2.PNG

As predicted, this sparked condemnation from the Mexican government which had never recognized Texan independence. Both nations began preparing for war. Polk sent troops into the disputed border region between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande, began mobilizing the US Navy, and sent special envoy John Slidell to Ciudad Mexico. When Mexican journalists learned that Slidell was in fact attempting to negotiate the purchase of more Mexican territory, New Mexico and California, it inflamed nationalist sentiment and many citizens threatened to revolt against President José Joaquín Herrera. The negotiations went nowhere. 

Polk’s cabinet was still divided on declaring war. Several secretaries were not willing to vote for war until attacked by Mexican forces. This occurred when General Zachary Taylor, who had crossed Mexico’s stated border, the Nueces, led his troops to the Rio Grande. Soon after refusing the Mexican commander’s order to withdraw, a skirmish broke out between troops. Taylor reported 16 casualties. Polk argued before Congress that Mexico had invaded US territory and “shed American blood on American soil.” Congress swiftly declared war on Mexico in 1846. The Mexican government was defiant, but still divided amongst itself. The army overthrew the current president and brought General Santa Anna back to power.

The war saw battles in California, New Mexico, and Texas, but the major offensive took place in Mexico’s heartland. US forces invaded and occupied Veracruz. Civilian deaths far outnumbered military casualties. US newspapers reported shocking abuses against civilians by American troops. General Winfield Scott fought several battles on the way to Ciudad Mexico, and eventually conquered its defenses. The occupation of the ancient city was not an easy task, as the citizenry continued its resistance through acts of sabotage and guerrilla warfare. Most US deaths were the result of disease rather than combat.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848. The United States purchased California, New Mexico, and Texas, half of Mexico’s territory, for 18.25 million dollars. The treaty obligated the US to protect the property of the Mexicans in their new possessions by giving them US citizenship or just compensation if they decided to leave the country. In reality, only the most elite Mexicans were able to retain their wealth, while the majority of the population suffered political, cultural, and often violent repression, including frequent lynchings.

Despite this brutal history, Mexican and indigenous communities resisted erasure and fought to retain their cultures and communities throughout the American Southwest.

Sources:

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)- The National Archives (US)

The United States-Mexican War, 1846-1848- United States Foreign Policy History and Research Guide

Mexican War Timeline- National Parks Service

“Santa Anna, the Centralized State, and the War with the United States.” The Course of Mexican History. Susan M. Deeds, Michael C. Meyer, William L. Sherman. Oxford University Press. 11th ed. 2018.